Conclusion
From triangulating all of the methods and their various results, we approach the conclusion of our enquiry, with the aim of answering: How are happiness metrics and air quality indices related? And what does this mean in the context of the English North/South divide?
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To answer the first subquestion, to understand how happiness metrics and air quality indices are related, we can turn to the correlation matrix. Negative correlations between PM10 and happiness and PM2.5 and happiness in 2011 demonstrate that as pollution measures increase, happiness decreased. In 2021, the results are less clear as there is a weakly negative correlation between PM10 and happiness in 2021, yet a positive correlation between PM2.5 and happiness. This appears to be an outlier in the trend that relates pollution and happiness in a negative way, but nevertheless requires further investigation.
Our study is limited because it only considered how air pollution and happiness were observed across a ten year timeframe, and assumed that PM2.5 and PM10 levels were valid indicators of poor air quality or air pollution. From missing data, our findings may be limited and insufficiently robust to offer advice towards policy interventions.
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To analyse the second subquestion, to understand the relationship in the North-South divide, we can turn to the regression analysis. The R2 values do not present a significant result between the relationships between pollution indicators and happiness across the North and the South. The lowest R2 value of 0.006 suggests that 0.6% of the variation explained in PM10 data can be explained by variation in the happiness data in the North across the years 2021. While the South reported higher R2 values, which could suggest that the regression model can be used to explain a possible relationship between pollution and happiness in the South. Nevertheless, as there is not a significant result across the North and the South, it is difficult to assess if the relationship between air quality and happiness has a political dimension that can be attributed to the North-South divide.
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From observing the choropleth maps, it is evident that pollution levels have dropped but reported happiness has remained constant. There is no significant relationship shown geospatially to present a different relationship between air pollution and happiness across the North-South divide. Rather, the divide is between metropolitan and more rural areas. With this said, although the answer to our research question was somewhat inconclusive, further research into understanding how health inequalities manifest geospatially is needed.
An investigation into the contentious urban-rural divide may provide more clearer conclusions to understand how air pollution and happiness metrics are truly related, if at all. Nevertheless, with the generally negative relationship between air pollution and happiness, policy interventions on a national scale must take place to improve the quality of living for all English residents.
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We chose to analyse data across the years 2011-2021 for practical reasons (this was the only available time frame for reported 'happy means', but also because two significant pieces of air quality policy were introduced during this timeframe: the 2010 Air Quality Standards Regulations and the Clean Air Strategy 2019.
Schedule 2 of the 2010 Standards in the UK entail the limiting of the annual average PM2.5 concentrations to 25µg/m3 and annual average PM10 concentrations to 40µg/m3 in England. The Clean Air Strategy outlines the UK's aim to reduce PM2.5 concentration's to 'meet the WHO air quality guideline limit of 10µg/m3' (p.7, Clean Air Strategy).
With the Clean Air Strategy focusing on improving air quality in deprived areas, the government strategy suggests the link between these areas and their lack of access to "green spaces [which may be] associated with improved levels of mental wellbeing" (ibid). This highlights the national policy approach to tackling air pollution, but also includes efforts to improve air quality on a local scale through 'education and training in the health professional field... to inform local decision making, notably at the local authority level' (ibid, p. 31).
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Local activist groups in the North and the South continue to campaign for better legislation to reduce the effects of poor air quality (see both images, above). While our investigation sought to investigate variations in the strength of the relationship between air quality and happiness: it is evident that English residents actsoss the country remain united, and committed to improve air quality collectively to seek improvements in their wellbeing.
An image of Extinction Rebellion North protesters in Manchester in September 2020, demonstrating against the delay's to the city's Clean Air Zone. Image credit: Christopher Furlong.
An image of protesters outside City Hall, London in 2018, regarding the deficiencies in air pollution legislation by the Mayor, Sadiq Khan. Image credit: David Levene.
Linking to our geopolitical aim: The 2010 Air Quality Regulations and the 2019 Clean Air Strategy